From the abstract of some of the referenced papers: An expert system is being developed which will apply knowledge-based techniques to the automated interpretation of remotely sensed sea-ice images taken over East Antarctica by the NOAA series of meteorological satellites. It is capable of accepting satellite images, deriving characteristic features from them and then performing knowledge-based reasoning to identify regions of cloud, land, open water and various categories of sea-ice. XXXXXXXXXXXXX This paper describes the system design of SPARTEX, a system developed to use information from remote sensing and geographic information systems linked to expert systems. It aims to automate the process of classifying information about the actual or potential use of part of the earth's surface. See the link below for public details on this project.

Metadata record for data from ASAC Project 2504 See the link below for public details on this project. In this project a sea-ice model for application in Southern Ocean climate and forecasting studies will be developed to amend identified deficiencies in numerical models (i.e. unaccounted short-term dynamics; or non-suitable ice rheology). In-situ deformation and ice-stress data will be used to derive parameterisations suitable for the Southern Ocean pack. Antarctic sea ice is an important component of the Southern Hemisphere climate. It provides a habitat for algae, plankton and for larger species such as mammals or penguins. It is a transport medium for freshwater and biological matter. On the other hand it acts like a barrier between ocean and atmosphere in regard to the exchange of thermal energy, water vapour and gases. Sea ice affects the polar climate in many ways: E.g., by effectively insulating the ocean from the colder atmosphere the sea ice enables an advection of relatively warm water onto the shallow Antarctic continental shelf. This warmer water is then available to interact with other components of the climate system, such as by basal melting of the continental ice shelves [Jenkins and Holland, 2002]. Also, due to its high albedo, the sea ice has a large-scale effect on the net incoming solar radiation [Ebert et al., 1995] and reduces the absorption of solar energy into the upper ocean. The thermodynamic growth of seaice and the consequent desalination of the ice gives rise to a transport of salt from the ice into the ocean, which increases the water density over the shelf, thereby driving the deep vertical overturning cell in the global ocean circulation. High ice-growth rates (e.g., in regions of polynyas) are generally concentrated in small areas in shallow waters. These regions are often insufficiently resolved or even unresolved in coupled climate models, which are generally configured to run at a spatial resolution of 2 degree longitude by 1 degree latitude or coarser [Zhang and Hunke, 2001]. The specific objectives of this project are to: * identify the variabilities in the sea-ice characteristics and the underlying physical processes; * identify the time scales, at which the sea ice interacts with the ocean and atmosphere; * assess the contribution of sub-daily ice motion and deformation due to tidal forcing and inertial response to changes within the Antarctic ocean-ice-atmosphere system; * derive the impact of sub-daily ice dynamics on the sea-ice area, extent and mass on interannual and decadal time scales; * determine the scale effect of dynamic processes on the accuracy of modelled sea-ice parameters using a global high-resolution model; * identify model uncertainties through comprehensive validation studies. However, logistical problems prevented the project from collecting any data in the field. To overcome the paucity of planned buoy data we used the following data sets to address some of the aspects of the original proposal: 1) Sea-ice buoy data: ISPOL 2004: See AAS #2500 for metadata. 2) Numerical investigations: We have investigated the failure of sea ice using an isotropic model [Hibler, 1979], where ice strength is modelled as a random variable in the model space. In situ weakening was prescribed by a fracture-based Coulombic rheology [Hibler and Schulson, 2000]. We realised this by parameterising weakening with an ice-strength parameter of 1000 and initialising the ice strength across the model grid by random. The simulations were run over a 2000 km by 2000 km region and forced, from rest, with an idealised wind field. We analysed the sensitivity of failure to ice strength and wind stress as well as the intersection angle of the wind stress, and conducted idealised 2D failure experiments.

A summary of landfast sea ice coverage and the changes in the distance between the penguin colony at Point Geologie and the nearest span of open water on the Adelie Land coast in East Antarctica. The data were derived from cloud-free NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data acquired between 1-Jan-1992 and 31-Dec-1999. The areal extent and variability of fast ice along the Adelie Land coast were mapped using time series of NOAA AVHRR visible and thermal infrared (TIR) satellite images collected at Casey Station (66.28 degrees S, 110.53 degrees E). The AVHRR sensor is a 5-channel scanning radiometer with a best ground resolution of 1.1 km at nadir (Cracknell 1997, Kidwell 1997). The period covered began in 1992 due to a lack of sufficient AVHRR scans of the region of interest prior to this date and ended in 1999 (work is underway to extend the analysis forward in time). While cloud cover is a limiting factor for visible-TIR data, enough data passes were acquired to provide sufficient cloud-free images to resolve synoptic-scale formation and break-up events. Of 10,297 AVHRR images processed, 881 were selected for fast ice analysis, these being the best for each clear (cloud-free) day. The aim was to analyse as many cloud-free images as possible to resolve synoptic-scale variability in fast ice distribution. In addition, a smaller set of cloud-free images were obtained from the Arctic and Antarctic Research Center (AARC) at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, comprising 227 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Operational Linescan Imager (OLS) images (2.7 km resolution) and 94 NOAA AVHRR images at 4 km resolution. The analysis also included 2 images (spatial resolution 140 m) from the US Argon surveillance satellite programme, originally acquired in 1963 and obtained from the USGS EROS Data Center (available at: edcsns17.cr.usgs.gov/EarthExplorer/). Initial image processing was carried out using the Common AVHRR Processing System (CAPS) (Hill 2000). This initially produces 3 brightness temperature (TB) bands (AVHRR channels 3 to 5) to create an Ice Surface Temperature (IST) map (after Key 2002) and to enable cloud clearing (after Key 2002 and Williams et al. 2002). Fast ice area was then calculated from these data through a multi-step process involving user intervention. The first step involved correcting for anomalously warm pixels at the coast due to adiabatic warming by seaward-flowing katabatic winds. This was achieved by interpolating IST values to fast ice at a distance of 15 pixels to the North/South and East/ West. The coastline for ice sheet (land) masking was obtained from Lorenzin (2000). Step 2 involved detecting open water and thin sea ice areas by their thermal signatures. Following this, old ice (as opposed to newly-formed ice) was identified using 2 rules: the difference between the IST and TB (band 4, 10.3 to 11.3 microns) for a given pixel is plus or minus 1 K and the IST is less than 250 K. The final step, i.e. determination of the fast ice area, initially applied a Sobel edge-detection algorithm (Gonzalez and Woods 1992) to identify all pixels adjacent to the coast. A segmentation algorithm then assigned a unique value to each old ice area. Finally, all pixels adjacent to the coast were examined using both the segmented and edge-detected images. If a pixel had a value (i.e. it was segmented old ice), then this segment was assumed to be attached to the coast. This segment's value was noted and every pixel with the same value was classified as fast ice. The area was then the product of the number of fast ice pixels and the resolution of each pixel. A number of factors affect the accuracy of this technique. Poorly navigated images and large sensor scan angles detrimentally impact image segmentation, and every effort was taken to circumvent this. Moreover, sub-pixel scale clouds and leads remain unresolved and, together with water vapour from leads and polynyas, can contaminate the TB. In spite of these potential shortcomings, the algorithm gives reasonable and consistent results. The accuracy of the AVHRR-derived fast ice extent retrievals was tested by comparison with near- contemporary results from higher resolution satellite microwave data, i.e. from the Radarsat-1 ScanSAR (spatial resolution 100 m over a 500 km swath) obtained from the Alaska Satellite Facility. The latter were derived from a 'snapshot' study of East Antarctic fast ice by Giles et al. (2008) using 4 SAR images averaged over the period 2 to 18 November 1997. This gave an areal extent of approximately 24,700 km2. The comparative AVHRR-derived extent was approximately 22,240 km2 (average for 3 to 14 November 1997). This is approximately 10% less than the SAR estimate, although the estimates (images) were not exactly contemporary. Time series of ScanSAR images, in combination with bathymetric data derived from Porter-Smith (2003), were also used to determine the distribution of grounded icebergs. At the 5.3 GHz frequency (? = 5.6 cm) of the ScanSAR, icebergs can be resolved as high backscatter (bright) targets that are, in general, readily distinguishable from sea ice under cold conditions (Willis et al. 1996). In addition, an estimate was made from the AVHRR derived fast ice extent product of the direct-path distance between the colony at Point Geologie and the nearest open water or thin ice. This represented the shortest distance that the penguins would have to travel across consolidated fast ice in order to reach foraging grounds. A caveat is that small leads and breaks in the fast ice remain unresolved in this satellite analysis, but may be used by the penguins. We examine possible relationships between variability in fast ice extent and the extent and characteristics of the surrounding pack ice (including the Mertz Glacier polynya to the immediate east) using both AVHRR data and daily sea ice concentration data from the DMSP Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) for the sector 135 to 145 degrees E. The latter were obtained from the US National Snow and Ice Data Center for the period 1992 to 1999 inclusive (Comiso 1995, 2002). The effect of variable atmospheric forcing on fast ice variability was determined using meteorological data from the French coastal station Dumont d'Urville (66.66 degrees S, 140.02 degrees E, WMO #89642, elevation 43 m above mean sea level), obtained from the SCAR READER project ( www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/READER/). Synoptic- scale circulation patterns were examined using analyses from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology Global Assimilation and Prediction System, or GASP (Seaman et al. 1995).

Maps of East Antarctic landfast sea-ice extent, generated from approx. 250,000 1 km visible/thermal infrared cloud-free MODIS composite imagery (augmented with AMSR-E 6.25-km sea-ice concentration composite imagery when required). Because of imperfections in the MODIS composite images (typically caused by inaccurate cloud masking, persistent cloud in a given region, and/or a highly dynamic fast-ice edge), automation of the fast-ice extent retrieval process was not possible. Each image was thus classified manually. A study of errors/biases of this process revealed that most images were able to be classified with a 2-sigma accuracy of +/- ~3%. More details are provided in Fraser et al., (2010). *Version 1.2 with extra QC around the Mawson coast and Lutzow-Holm Bay The directory named "pngs" contains browsable maps of fast-ice extent, in the form of Portable Network Graphics (PNG) images. Each of the 159 consecutive images (20-day intervals from Day Of Year (DOY) 61-80, 2000 to DOY 341-366, 2008) contains a map of fast-ice extent along the East Antarctic coast, generated from MODIS and AMSR-E imagery. The colour scale is as follows: Dark blue: Fast ice, as classified from a single 20-day MODIS composite image Red: Fast ice, as classified using the previous or next 20-day MODIS composite images Yellow: Fast ice, as classified using a single 20-day AMSR-E composite image White: Antarctic continent (including ice shelves), as defined using the Mosaic of Antarctica product. Light blue: Southern ocean/pack ice/icebergs These maps are also provided as unformatted binary fast ice images, in the directory named "imgs". These .img files are all flat binary images of dimension 4300 * 425 pixels. The data type is 8-bit byte. Within the .img files, the value for each pixel indicates its cover: 0: Southern Ocean, pack ice or icebergs, corresponding to light blue in the PNG files. 1: Antarctic continent (including ice shelves), as defined using the Mosaic of Antarctica product, corresponding to white in the PNG files. 2: Fast ice, as classified from a single 20-day MODIS composite image, corresponding to dark blue in the PNG files 3: Fast ice, as classified using a single 20-day AMSR-E composite image, corresponding to yellow in the PNG files 4: Fast ice, as classified using the previous or next 20-day MODIS composite images, corresponding to red in the PNG files To assist in georeferencing these data, files containing information on the latitude and longitude of each pixel are provided in the directory named "geo". These files are summarised as follows: lats.img: File containing the latitude of the centre of each pixel. File format is unformatted 32-bit floating point, 4300 * 425 pixels. lons.img: File containing the longitude of the centre of each pixel. File format is unformatted 32-bit floating point, 4300 * 425 pixels. The .gpd Grid Point Descriptor file used to build the projection is also included. It contains parameters which you can use for matching your projection. To refer to the time series, climatology, or maps of average persistence, please reference this paper: Fraser, A. D., R. A. Massom, K. J. Michael, B. K. Galton-Fenzi, and J. L. Lieser, East Antarctic landfast sea ice distribution and variability, 2000-08, Journal of Climate 25, 4, pp. 1137-1156, 2012 In addition, please cite the following reference when describing the process of generating these maps: Fraser, A. D., R. A. Massom, and K. J. Michael, Generation of high-resolution East Antarctic landfast sea-ice maps from cloud-free MODIS satellite composite imagery, Elsevier Remote Sensing of Environment, 114 (12), 2888-2896, doi:10.1016/j.rse.2010.07.006, 2010. To reference the techniques for generating the MODIS composite images, please use the following reference: Fraser, A. D., R. A. Massom, and K. J. Michael, A method for compositing polar MODIS satellite images to remove cloud cover for landfast sea-ice detection, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 47 (9), pp. 3272-3282, doi:10.1109/TGRS.2009.2019726, 2009. Please contact Alex Fraser (adfraser@utas.edu.au) for further information.

This dataset contains the digitisation of one U.S. Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Facility sea ice extent and concentration map monthly to give the latitude and longitude of the northern extent of the Antarctic sea ice. Maps were produced weekly, but have been digitised monthly, since distribution began in January 1973 (except August 1985), until December 1996. Maps were digitised at each 10 degrees of longitude, and the longitude, distance from the south pole to the northern edge of the sea ice at that longitude, and latitude of that edge is given, as well as the mean distance and latitude for that map. Summary tabulations (sea ice northern extent latitudes at each 10 degree of longitude each year, grouped by month) and mean monthly sea ice extent statistics are also available.

This is a scanned copy of a document detailing data on the extent of sea ice in Antarctic from 1980 to 1988. The scanned pages consist of latitude and distance of the south pole of the northern edge of Antarctic sea ice each 10 degrees of longitude. These data were originally extracted from the U.S. navy - NOAA joint ice centre weekly maps of sea ice extent, and compiled by Jo Jacka.

This dataset represents extents of Antarctic sea ice derived from passive microwave data. It includes: maximum and minimum sea ice extent based on 1989 - 99 data; maximum sea ice extent by month for the period October - March based on 1973 - 98 data; mean sea ice extent by month based on 1973 - 1998 data; and maximum sea ice extent averaged over the period 1987 - 1998. The data referenced by this metadata record has been sourced from another metadata record in this catalogue. For more information on the dataset see: Antarctic CRC and Australian Antarctic Division Climate Data Set - Northern extent of Antarctic sea ice [climate_sea_ice].

This indicator is no longer maintained, and is considered OBSOLETE. INDICATOR DEFINITION The northern limit of the pack ice as defined by the 15% concentration of sea ice determined by the SSM/I instrument or its replacement. TYPE OF INDICATOR There are three types of indicators used in this report: 1.Describes the CONDITION of important elements of a system; 2.Show the extent of the major PRESSURES exerted on a system; 3.Determine RESPONSES to either condition or changes in the condition of a system. This indicator is one of: CONDITION RATIONALE FOR INDICATOR SELECTION Climate is affected by complex interactions between the sea ice and the atmosphere and ocean. The sea ice extent and concentration is determined by the oceanic and atmospheric forcing. There is evidence of variations in the sea ice extent and concentration on a synoptic time scale as storms pass through the region, and variations in sea ice extent on a multi-year time frame with forcing caused by the Antarctic circumpolar wave. Over the past 20 years, there is limited evidence of an increase in spatial ice extent and in the length of time that ice is present. Continued monitoring of sea ice extent and concentration may provide insights into the dynamics of the Southern Ocean and help to predict future climate. DESIGN AND STRATEGY FOR INDICATOR MONITORING PROGRAM NASA uses a combination of satellite passive microwave sensors to measure the brightness values over sea ice covered regions. They then use an algorithm (referred to as the 'team' algorithm) to calculate the ice concentration and to determine the ice edge. The data are available globally on a daily or monthly basis. RESEARCH ISSUES Currently, NASA intends to maintain a series of satellite microwave sensors to continue to monitor sea ice extent and concentration. Ongoing research to interpret the data are currently being carried out at the AAD and the Antarctic and Southern Ocean CRC. Links with other indicators The sea ice extent and concentration has a large impact on the surface salinity and temperatures. Thus strong links with sea surface salinity and sea surface temperatures.

These data give the maximum extent of sea ice in the southern hemisphere by day and by winter season and the mean maximum extent by month. Data cover the 1979/1980 to 2007/2008 seasons. The data are available in csv files and, in the case of the mean monthly data, as point and line shapefiles.

This dataset comprises high spatial- and temporal-resolution maps of coastal landfast sea ice (fast ice) distribution in the vicinity of the Cape Darnley Polynya in East Antarctica, in the June-November (winter-spring) periods of 2008 and 2009. The maps were derived from cross-correlation of pairs of spatially-overlapping Envisat Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) images, using a modified version of the IMCORR algorithm to determine vectors of sea-ice motion (as described in Giles et al., 2011). Fast ice is then distinguished from moving pack ice by the fact that it is stationary. The raw ASAR WSM data (swath width 500 km) were processed using ENVI image processing software to produce geo-referenced images with a 75m pixel size. Use of SAR data ensures coverage uninterrupted by cloud cover or polar darkness. Image pairs were chosen with a time separation between 2 and 21 days. IMCORR processing of the image pairs for mapping fast ice follows Giles et al (2011) – using a reference tile size of 32x32 pixels and a search tile size of 64 x 64 pixels. A land mask was applied to avoid contamination from matches on stationary features over the continental ice sheet. The grid spacing was set to 16 x 16 pixels, so the images were over-sampled by a factor of 2 to provide a more dense set of results. Stationary fast ice vectors were chosen from the IMCORR results using a combination of the cluster search technique and a variation of the z-axis threshold technique as detailed in Giles et al (2011). The cluster search technique was applied to the IMCORR results from each image pair to derive the initial set of valid vectors – this set could contain both stationary fast ice vectors and non-stationary pack ice vectors. Due to registration errors in the image pairs, the stationary vectors will not necessarily be centred around zero, so using a simple window around the zero offset mark to differentiate the fast ice vectors was not possible. To select the stationary vectors, a 2D histogram was constructed from the X-Y vector displacements, and a 2D Gaussian was fitted to this histogram. The fast ice vectors will dominate because of the large image pair time separation and small search tile size, so the Gaussian peak should correspond to the centre of the stationary fast ice vectors. All vectors that are within 5 standard deviations of the Gaussian peak are tagged as valid fast ice vectors. This is a minor modification to the method of Giles et al (2011), who used a simple threshold cut on the z-axis of the 2D histogram to define the fast ice vectors. Data format – one fully annotated (self-describing) netCDF file per image pair containing latitude/longitude coordinates of the stationary fast ice vectors. This technique and dataset complement a lower resolution but longer-term dataset (2000-2014) derived from satellite MODIS visible and thermal infrared data. (AAS_4116_Fraser_fastice_mawson_capedarnley).